@article {47712, title = {Insect disturbance stridulation: Characterization of airborne and vibrational components of the sound}, journal = {Journal of Comparative Physiology ? A}, volume = {135}, year = {1980}, month = {Jan-01-1980}, pages = {259 - 268}, abstract = {

Some insects stridulate when attacked by a predator. This behavior has been interpreted as a defensive response, the sound being a warning to predators of the insect\&$\#$39;s noxiousness. Since to humans many such disturbance sounds are audibly similar, it is possible that they may in fact be mutually mimetic. This idea was investigated through analysis of the temporal and spectral characteristics of the disturbance sounds of a variety of insects that stridulate by a file- and -scraper device. Properties of both the airborne sound and the underlying cuticular vibration (detected by a special vibration measuring instrument) were examined, and four characteristic features found:

\ \ \  1. The temporal pattern is simple. Bursts of toothstrike impulses are about 80 ms long, and are separated by pauses about 90 ms long. Bursts occur at a rate of about 5 to 10/s.
\ \ \ \ 
\ \ \  2. The temporal pattern is irregular. For toothstrike interval, burst duration, pause duration and interburst interval, the standard deviation is usually \>30\% of the mean. Much of the irregularity is presumably caused by the insect struggling at the same time it stridulates. Some insects show less variability, and these appear to lack tight coupling between stridulatory movements and struggling movements, so struggling does not interfere with stridulation.
\ \ \ \ 
\ \ \  3. The airborne sound pressure waveform is impulsive. The frequency coverage of the sounds is quite broad with an average 10-dB bandwidth of about 40 kHz centered at 25 kHz. The sounds are not intense, ranging from about 10 to 60 dB (re 20\×10\−6 Pa) at 10 cm.
\ \ \ \ 
\ \ \  4. The cuticular vibration waveform is sharply peaked and contains maximum energy at a frequency determined by the tooth-strike rate, usually about 1 kHz. The average decrease in power above this frequency is about 12 dB/octave. The maximum peak-to-peak amplitude of cuticular motion is about 1 to 10 \μm.
\ \ \ \ 

These common characteristics may lead predators to treat insects producing disturbance sounds similarly, although this possibility should be tested empirically. If acoustic mimicry exists, the communicatory interchange between predator and prey may be subtler than is commonly appreciated.

Supported in part by an NSF predoctoral fellowship and Bache Fund stipend from the National Academy of Sciences (Masters), and NIH grant AI-02908 and NSF grant PCM77-25807 (T. Eisner). I thank the insect identification service of the U.S. Department of Agriculture and E.R. Hoebeke for identification of insects. I am grateful to the Director and staff of the Archbold Biological Station, Lake Placid, Florida, for their hospitality while I was there. To my chairman, Dr. Thomas Eisner, I wish to acknowledge my great debt for his original proposal that I study insect disturbance sounds and the suggestion that the sounds might be mutually mimetic, and for his unfailing support throughout my graduate career. I also thank Drs. Eisner, R.R. Capranica, D.J. Aneshansley, W.L. Brown and J. Camhi for helpful criticism of the manuscript, Drs. Capranica and G. Hausfater for loan of equipment, and Dr. A. George for discussions of acoustics. Finally, for invaluable help with all phases of this research, I thank my wife, Anne Moffat.

}, issn = {0340-7594}, doi = {10.1007/BF00657254}, url = {http://link.springer.com/10.1007/BF00657254}, author = {Masters, W. Mitchell} } @article {15287, title = {A comparative study of ultrasound-triggered behaviour in tiger beetles (Cicindelidae)}, journal = {Journal of Zoology}, volume = {251}, year = {2000}, month = {Jan-07-2000}, pages = {355 - 368}, abstract = {

This study examines the behavioural responses to ultrasound in 52 species from the family Cicindelidae using both tethered \Øight and non-\Øight assays. Tethered \Øying tiger beetles respond to trains of bat-like ultrasonic pulses with a short-latency, multi-component behaviour. There was no variation in the nature of the behavioural responses regardless of geographical distribution or phylogenetic position. Lowest mean behavioural thresholds lie predominantly between 30 and 45 kHz. Sensitivity, however, varies widely, and several species do not respond at all in these assays. The lowest thresholds for responders are most often between 70 and 80 dB SPL. Almost all subgenera of North American tiger beetles in the genus Cicindela have at least some species with low-threshold acoustic behaviour. The single exception is the large subgenus Cicindela where all species are completely unresponsive or have very high thresholds. There was little relationship between habitat and responsiveness to ultrasound, but there is a strong correlation with seasonal activity \± species with adults active in the spring and autumn (all in the subgenus Cicindela )do not show ultrasound-triggered behaviour whereas summer-active species generally do. Superimposing these data on a current phylogeny of the North American tiger beetles suggests that acoustic behaviour (and hearing) is a shared primitive trait among the taxa examined here and that there have been at least \Æve independent losses of this character.

}, keywords = {Cicindela, defensive behaviour, evolution, insect hearing, phylogeny}, issn = {0952-8369}, doi = {10.1111/jzo.2000.251.issue-310.1111/j.1469-7998.2000.tb01086.x}, url = {http://www.blackwell-synergy.com/toc/jzo/251/3}, author = {Yager, David D. and Cook, Aaron P. and Pearson, David L. and Spangler, Hayward G.} } @article {15286, title = {New Stridulatory Structures in a Tiger Beetle (Coleoptera: Carabidae: Cicindelinae): Morphology and Sound Characterization}, journal = {The Coleopterists Bulletin}, volume = {57}, year = {2003}, pages = {161-166}, chapter = {161}, abstract = {

The stridulatory mechanism in Oxycheila tristis (Fabricius) (Cicindelinae: Megacephatini) is described. Sound is produced by mates and females rubbing the internal edge of the hind femur (plectrum) on the ringed elytral epipleura (pars stridens). The hind legs usually alternate, and sound is mostly generated during backward movement. Abdominal movements seem to play a role in the amplitude modulation of the signals. Temporal characteristics of the sound are slightly different for both sexes (longer leg cycles in females) but the frequency spectra are similar. The same stridulatory structures were found in other Oxycheila species as well as in the closely related Cheiloxya binotata longipennis Horn. Considering the different stridulatory mechanisms described in cicindelids, sound production probably evolved independently at least three times in this group.

}, url = {https://www.researchgate.net/publication/250068645_New_Stridulatory_Structures_in_a_Tiger_Beetle_Coleoptera_Carabidae_Cicindelinae_Morphology_and_Sound_Characterization}, author = {Artur R. Serrano and Anabela C. Diogo and Emanuel Vi{\c c}oso and Paulo J. Fonseca} } @article {11816, title = {Stridulation and defensive behaviour in the ground beetle, Cychrus caraboides (L.)}, journal = {Journal of Entomology Series A, General Entomology}, volume = {49}, year = {1974}, month = {Jan-11-1974}, pages = {7 - 15}, chapter = {7}, abstract = {Adults of both sexes of C.caraboides stridulate by means of an elytroabdominal mechanism. The stridulatory surfaces consist of opposing series of microlamellae, only seen clearly with the surface scanning electron microscope. Sound emission covers a wide band of frequencies from audible to about 80 kHz. It is suggested that stridulation may act as an acoustic warning to certain vertebrate predators.}, doi = {10.1111/phen.1974.49.issue-110.1111/j.1365-3032.1974.tb00062.x}, url = {http://doi.wiley.com/10.1111/phen.1974.49.issue-1http://doi.wiley.com/10.1111/j.1365-3032.1974.tb00062.x}, author = {Claridge, M. F.} } @article {11815, title = {New Stridulatory Structures in a Tiger Beetle (Coleoptera: Carabidae: Cicindelinae): Morphology and Sound Characterization}, journal = {The Coleopterists Bulletin}, volume = {57}, year = {2003}, pages = {161-166}, chapter = {161}, abstract = {The stridulatory mechanism in Oxycheila tristis (Fabricius) (Cicindelinae: Megacephalini) is described. Sound is produced by males and females rubbing the internal edge of the hind femur (plectrum) on the ringed elytral epipleura (pars stridens). The hind legs usually alternate, and sound is mostly generated during backward movement. Abdominal movements seem to play a role in the amplitude modulation of the signals. Temporal characteristics of the sound are slightly different for both sexes (longer leg cycles in females) but the frequency spectra are similar. The same stridulatory structures were found in other Oxycheila species as well as in the closely related Cheiloxya binotata longipennis Horn. Considering the different stridulatory mechanisms described in cicindelids, sound production probably evolved independently at least three times in this group.}, doi = {10.1649/538}, author = {Artur R. Serrano and Anabela C. Diogo and Emanuel Vi{\c c}oso and Paulo J. Fonseca} }